"Archeomafia" : the Impact of Criminal Organizations on Heritage and Archaeological Research

Quand la recherche de vestiges matériels du passé n’est plus motivée par la curiosité scientifique, on se retrouve face à des pillages ou à des chasses au trésor. La plupart de nos sociétés accordent une valeur économique et/ou symbolique aux vestiges historiques. Souvent les groupes criminels et les élites économiques essayent de se les approprier ou de les instrumentaliser pour faire du chantage, imposer un message politique ou bien cumuler des profits. Au cours du siècle dernier, beaucoup d’objets ont rejoint les vitrines d’un musée ou d’une collection particulière à travers l’action des trafiquants et des mafias, ce qui a amené des chercheurs à créer l’expression « archeomafia ». L’objectif principal de cette thèse, pour ambitieux qu’il puisse paraître, est d’essayer une première convergence multidisciplinaire autour de la question des trafics illicites de vestiges archéologiques et de questionner plus particulièrement l’impact du crime organisé dans la recherche en archéologie et dans la tutelle des héritages culturels, notamment en Italie, au Mexique et en Palestine. Dans un premier temps, je me suis proposé de présenter les étapes principales de l’émergence de la législation pour la tutelle du patrimoine dans les États pré-unitaires italiens. La deuxième partie est consacrée aux pratiques illicites en archéologie. Dans la dernière partie seront présentées plusieurs études de cas emblématiques de la diversité et de la complexité du phénomène : la terra dei fuochi, Arpi et la province de Foggia, l’Apollon de Gaza et le procès Medici.As ambitious as it may seem, the main objective of this thesis is to attempt a first multidisciplinary convergence around the issue of illicit trafficking of archaeological heritage and question more particularly the impact of organized crime in archaeological research and the protection of cultural heritage. This research adopts methods and perspectives from different disciplines such as Archaeology, History, Economics, Art History, Literature, Law. The first part presents the main stages of the emergence of the legislation for cultural heritage protection in the Italian pre-unitary states. This choice is explained by the fact that the dominant contemporary legislation in Europe is inspired by the principles established mainly in Italy between the Renaissance and the 20th century. A particular focus on the colonial period allowed the dealing with the restitution of objects illicitly exported during colonization by France, Italy and Belgium. We conclude with a presentation of the main elements of international legislation and the treaties that define it. The second part is devoted to illicit practices in archaeology. First, we pose these questions to ourselves: who are the "tombaroli", the clandestine excavators, and what is their modus operandi? Then, we question the involvement of mafias and organized crime in looting and illicit trafficking of cultural heritage: what is the mafia? What about the concept of "archaeo-mafia"? Is it always applicable? To better study these transnational crimes, we focus on the infiltration of the art market and, in particular, the use of freeports to deposit, hide, and facilitate the circulation of cultural objects of illicit origin. Without the complicity of several archaeologists and researchers, the illegal market of antiquities would not be so developed. In this regard, we question the dangerous links between the dealers and some archaeologists who betray the ethics of their profession. We conclude this section with two in-depth studies of the actors involved in the repression and prevention of illicit trafficking in cultural and archaeological heritage: the specialized police forces and the groups or institutions proposing cultural mediation and valorization actions (public/community archaeology). In the last part, several case studies are presented as emblematic of the phenomenon's diversity and complexity. For instance, the "Terra dei fuochi" (The Land of Fires), a stronghold of the Camorra mafia in Campania, that has been ravaged by the burial of hazardous waste in the subsoil. This may have harmed the health of the archaeologists who carried out salvage excavations during the Rome-Naples high-speed line construction. The Faragola's villa located in the province of Foggia (north of Apulia), the site of Arpi and the tomb of the Medusa have become emblems of clandestine excavations and of the failure of the institutions supposed to protect and valorize the archaeological heritage in this area of Italy. We also talk about the Daunian steles, a category of objects from this region that can be real markers of illicit trafficking. Without the investigations coordinated by the magistrate Paolo Giorgio Ferri between the 1990s and 2000, we would have much less information on the subject. For this reason, I personally felt it was important to dedicate an in-depth study to the judicial proceedings that targeted Giacomo Medici and his criminal organization specialized in the illicit trafficking of archaeological heritage. Another study concerns the controversial figure of Gianfranco Becchina, who has been the subject of several judicial investigations for his alleged links with the Sicilian mafia and his possible involvement in the criminal organization of Medici and Robert Hecht. To conclude, we present two case studies that provide an overview of the situation in Mexico and in Gaza (Palestine) through the story of the Apollo of Gaza